General discussion, page-200

The high criticality rating for niobium is mainly a result of (1) the high concentration of niobium mine production in just a few countries, (i.e., Brazil and Canada), and more specifically by a single producer and mine locality which accounts for nearly 75% of global niobium supply , (2) the lack of available substitutes or significant performance loss associated with substitution, and (3) its increasing implementation into modern and energy-efficient, low emission technologies. The increased global demand for niobium has raised concerns over the possibility of supply restrictions related to its restricted geographic resource distribution. For example, in 2020 Brazil accounted for ∼91% of global primary niobium production, followed by Canada with ∼8% of global production.

This high concentration of niobium production coupled with the lack of domestic resources has led primary niobium-consuming countries and regions e.g., China and North America consume ∼35% and ∼15% of global niobium supply, respectively to be fully reliant on imports to meet primary domestic demand. Notably, of the 42 mineral commodities analyzed, niobium was the only commodity for which both the United States and China are 100% net import reliant (note: Gulley et al. assumed there was no domestic niobium mine production in China). This import reliance has attracted significant Chinese investment into the niobium market, such as the purchase of the Catalão (Boa Vista Mine) operation, the second-largest niobium producer in Brazil, by China Molybdenum Co., Ltd. (CMOC Brazil, 2016). The high net import reliance for both the United States and China combined with a rapid urban expansion of large population centers in the latter, the rise of infrastructure requiring HSLA steel, and the recent trade tensions between these two countries emphasizes the importance of further understanding potential supply restrictions to avoid or reduce the effect of supply disruptions and provide solutions to reduce its criticality.