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    B. LI-ION BATTERY INTEGRATION CHALLENGES
    Railway systems have very demanding operating conditions
    including vibrations, conducted and radiated noise, as well as
    extreme temperature conditions. These make designing the
    battery system and its protections a challenging task. Specific challenges related to the integration of battery onboard
    railway vehicles include [12], [112], [119]: 1) safety issues,
    protections, and the consequent high number of electronic
    components and 2) recharging infrastructure and scheduling.
    Li-ion batteries can be dangerous if they undergo a thermal
    runway also called thermal avalanche, which is an irreversible
    process that eventually causes the battery cells to catch fire or
    even explode depending on the battery type [120]. Thermal
    runaway is triggered if Li-ion cell safety is compromised
    when any of its internal components are misused or undergo instability due to extreme operation. The latter situation
    would eventually lead to the release of stored energy in an
    uncontrolled manner increasing rapidly the cell temperature
    and leading to the thermal runaway phenomena, most probably propagating nearby cells and jeopardizing the complete
    battery system. Some of the conditions that could lead to thermal runaway include overvoltage between battery terminals,
    overtemperature, overcurrent, isolation failure (i.e., overvoltage between any terminal and ground), etc.
    In order to survive the harsh railway conditions without
    compromising cell safety, the battery system needs to be
    very carefully designed and monitored [120], [121]. For this
    reason, battery packs are necessarily equipped with a BMS
    and a battery thermal management system [122]; these have
    direct control over the precharge circuit and the power box
    containing the main circuit breakers/contactors and fuses.
    The presence of these electronic units often adds complexity to the system and increases the number of components
    as well as making the system more susceptible to noise
    interference. Consequently, filters are needed. Differentialand common-mode filters are typically included to attenuate
    differential- and common-mode noise. Common-mode filter
    still represents an open issue for battery system design [79].
    It requires battery manufacturers to have very precise knowledge of their battery pack immunity limits regarding tolerable
    dv/dt, common-mode voltage, EMI, etc., and define acceptable noise levels imposed by other system components
    especially switching converters.

 
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