123. Renaissance Lute The lute, or testudo as Praetorius subtitles it in reference to its tortoise-shaped back, was one of the most popular of the “perfect” instruments which could play all of the parts of a composition, not just one line. Lutes were popular in the Middle Ages for doing precisely that_playing one line_but at some point in the late 15th century, players began to experiment with playing more contrapuntal or chordal works. The new arm/hand position continued at first to come round the end of the instrument, using the thumb and forefinger as plectrum substitutes. This is called thumb-under technique. Gradually, the instrument evolved from having five courses (or pairs of strings) in the early Renaissance, to seven, eight, or even ten by the late Renaissance, and as the number of strings grew, the arm of the player began to come over the shoulder of the lute and the thumb came out as in modern guitar technique. Lutes were among the earliest instruments to develop a solo repertoire but also, from about the middle of the 16th century, it became expected that they would participate in ensembles with other instruments as a kind of proto-continuo. Later Renaissance, makers also devised lutes with extended necks which were known by such names as archlute, theorbo, or chitarrone. The larger ones were frequently single- rather than double-strung and were prized as accompanying instruments, although they possessed their own solo literature as well.
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10. Zurna The zurna, like the duduk and kaval, is a woodwind instrument used to play folk music.The zurna is made from the slow-growing and hardwood of fruit trees such as plum or apricot (Prunus armeniaca). There are several different types of zurnas. The longest (and lowest-pitched) is the kaba zurna, used in western Turkey and Bulgaria, the shortest (and highest-pitched), which can be made of bone, is the zurna played in Messolonghi and other villages of Aetolia-Acarnania region in Greece.The zurna, a relative of the oboe, is found almost everywhere where the common reed grows because it uses a short cylindrical reed that is tied to a conical brass tube on one end, flattened to a narrow slit on the other end as a source of the sound.It requires high pressure to give any tone at all and when it does, it is almost constantly loud, high pitched, sharp, and piercing.The need for high pressure makes it suitable for playing without stop using circular breathing. A small pacifier-style disk that the lips may lean on helps the lip muscles that hold the high-pressure air, rest, and recover during long non-stop playing sessions.The combination of constant volume and non-stop playing makes the zurna unsuitable for emphasis of the rhythm. It has therefore been played almost invariably along with big drums that both provide the rhythm and the lower frequencies that travel further away than the zurna's loud, high pitched sound.It has a cylindrical bore, and a bell opening out in a parabolic curve, thus adapted to reflect the sound straight ahead. Because of its loud and highly directional sound as well as accompaniment by big drums, it has historically been played outdoors, during festive events such as weddings and public celebrations. It has also been used to gather crowds in order to make official announcements. This use of the zurna as a token of the ruling power developed into Janissary bands and eventually into military music.Seven holes on the front, and one thumb hole, provide a range of over one octave including some transposition.[citation needed]It is similar to the mizmar. Zurnas are used in the folk music of many countries, especially in Iran, Algeria, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Central Asia, Iraq, Syria, Turkey, Greece, Bulgaria, North Macedonia, The Maghreb, Albania, Serbia, Bosnia, Croatia and the other Caucasian countries, and have now spread throughout India, China, Korea and Eastern Europe.[citation needed] In the Slavic nations of the Balkans it is typically called zurla (зурла).
